Hedda Gabler Essay Example for Free

Hedda Gabler Essay Throughout the years people have developed an image of how a particular gender should act. In the play Hedda Gabler, the characters that are involved challenge and conform the gender stereotypes through verbal and non-verbal text. The author â€Å"Henrik Ibsen† has displayed characters such as Hedda Gabler and Julianne Tesman to challenge their stereotypical gender behaviors. Hedda Gabler, the play’s main character, challenges the common gender stereotype of a woman by portraying Gabbler as a person who has a thirst for being free. Gablers father, General Gabler is one of the main influences of her behavior challenging her feminine role. An example is ‘Tesman- â€Å"My old morning shoes, my slippers look! †¦ I missed them dreadfully. Now you should see them†. Hedda- â€Å"No thanks, it really doesn’t interest me†. This portrays Gabler showing no affection to Jorgen Tesman’s slippers. The way Hedda is not interested in Tesman’s slippers shows her little care for affection towards Tesman. This challenges the common gender stereotype because women are stereotyped to be affectionate and sensitive. Hedda Gabler is furthered portrayed by having masculine traits by non-verbal aspects of her character by having a pistol, Hedda-â€Å"[lifting the pistol and aiming] I’m going to shoot you, sir!† Brack- â€Å"No, no, no! Don’t stand there aiming that at me.† This quote represents the gun symbolically representing her masculinity and at this point, Hedda using it empowers her and used to gain some sought of power over Brack. The gun seen as a non verbal aspect of the play clearly representing Hedda Gabbler in a masculine way challenging the common stereotype of her gender. The gun, a phallic symbol, is Hedda projecting her masculinity. The way she always shows the gun, aiming it at Brack and talking about the gun to Tesman alarming him. Brack towards the end of the play blackmails Hedda about the death of lovburg and to avoid he being publically disgraced must tend to the will of Brack, â€Å"Brack-â€Å" Willingly every single evening, Miss Tesman. We shall have a very pleasant time here you and I† Hedda – â€Å"Yes that is what you are looking forward to isn’t, Mr. Brack? You as the only cock in the yard.† Hedda then kills herself representing her making sure Brack does not get the upper hand over her and gets the ultimate freedom from men trying to dominate her. Hedda Gabler also shown to hate thought of pregnancy rejecting the common gender stereotype. This is shown through a conversation between Julie Tesman and Hedda Gabler: Tesman – â€Å"Yes but have you noticed how plumped she’s grown, and how well she is? How much she has filled out on her travels?† Hedda – â€Å"I’m exactly the same as I was when I went away.† This quote represents that Hedda resents the idea of her being pregnant and will avoid the topic completely. Through this Hedda further rebels against her gender stereotype by not wanting to have kids which all women at that time where expected to have. She further rebels against this concept by ultimately her death by suicide. Through killing herself it shows the ultimate rejection of society’s expectation for a female and projects Hedda’s resent to conform. Julie Tesman is a character in the play that conforms to the female gender stereotype. Julie Tesman portrays this in the paly by constantly asking Tesman if Hedda is pregnant â€Å"Yes but have you noticed how plumped she’s grown, and how well she is? How much she has filled out on her travels?† which is important because she believes she should be. The fact that Julie Tesman serves Jorgen Tesman implements that she works for men a common female gender stereotype that women work for men. The fact that Julie Tesman will sacrifice everything for Jorgen shows her as mother figure toward Jorgen. Julie is seen as a mother figure, which shows that she is conforming to a female gender stereotype. In the play Hedda gabbler the author has created characters that challenge and conform to the common gender stereotypes. Hedda gabbler through being portrayed as masculine and always not wanting to be controlled sows how she challenges the female gender stereotype. Julie Tesman portrayed as a caring, old mother figure conforms to a female gender stereotype because of her show of affection, fragility and seen as a mother figure. Through the use of verbal and non-verbal aspects the author has projected these two characters to conform and the other to rebel against the common gender stereotype.

Importance of Job Satisfaction

Importance of Job Satisfaction PREFACE Management education is unusual combination of academic learning and practical expertise and in order to produce an executive, the two have to be interwoven. The practical training in any organization in domain of a management course has pivotal importance in not only expose the management student to the actual work situations thus giving them a rich in sight in to what practically goes on behind in the industrial climate and government institution and boards of India but it also help the students, who are eager to learn, to imbibe the latest in diverse areas and capitalize on it. Thus practical training in any industry or organization inculcates in the students, the skill and aptitude, which will position them to take full advantage of opportunities. I had privilege of receiving my practical knowledge about the training in BIG BAZAAR keeping in line with the objective of the3 customer oriented approach to be followed by a public utility organization. During my training, I was allotted a project to study the job satisfaction in BIG BAZAAR. I have tried my level best to make this project a success, obviously with in the parameters of constraints. I hope that the project report will be evaluated in this light and appreciate INTRODUCTION TO HRM Management is defined as that field of the human behavioour in which managers plan, organizes ,staff , direct and control human, physical and financial resources in an organization effort, in order to achieve desired individual and group objectives with optimum efficiency and effectiveness. It is clear from definition that management is concerned with the accomplishment of objectives by utilizing physical and financial resources through the efforts of human resources. Thus human resources are a crucial sub-system in the process of management. The term human resources is quit popular in India with the institution of ministry of Human Resources Development in the Cabinet. The modern organization setting is characterized by constant changing relating to environment factors and human resources. As regards environment factors we find changes in the operating organization structure, the network of working procedures, customs or norms and economic, political and social patterns in which organization exist. There is a constant change in human resources, new ideas and expectations. The existing work force is constantly with new ideas, attributes and values. To look after the various function set for the organization adequate resources in men and material have to be arranged by individual who serve as managers or supervisors within the organization. Such people have to make thing to achieve objective of organization. To achieve their objectives four important Ms should be utilized. Example: MONEY MATERIAL MACHINERY MEN The success, failure of organization depends on the above factors DEFINITION Human Resource Management is the method of developing potentialities of employees so that they get maximum satisfaction out of their work and give their efforts to the organization. Human Resource Management is the planning, organizing, directing and controlling of the procurement development , compensation, integration, maintenance and separation of human resources to the end that individual, organizational and societal objectives of accomplished. Human Resource Management in an extension general management, that of prompting and stimulating every employee to make his fullest contribution to the purpose of a business. SCOPE The well known Aristotelian saying is worth quoting while analyzing the scope of HRD. Aristotle said, it is as natural for human being to development and achieve his full potential as it for an acorn to grow in to a majestic oak tree. The focus of HRD essentially is on enabling people to self actualize through a systematic process of developing their existing capabilities of people both in the present and future. HRD has a wide ranging scope as its objectives included: Developing a climate for the employees to discover, to develop and use their full capacities for the organization. Increases the capacity of an organization to attract, retain and motive talented employees. Facilitating systematic generation of information on human resources for man power planning, development placements, carrier planning and succession planning. IMPORTANCE OF THE HRM Human resources play a crucial role in the development process of modern economics. Arthur Levis observed, there are grate differences in development between countries which seems to have roughly equal resources, so it is necessary to enquiry in to the differences in human behavior. It is often felt that, through the exploitation of natural resources and international aid play prominent roles in the growth of modern economies, none of these factors more significant then efficient and committed man power. It is infant, said that all development comes from the human mind. AIMS OF HRM Improve performance of individual on the present job. Improve competence of individual to perform future jobs. Improve group dynamics and effectiveness. Integrate individual goals with organizational goals. Encourage creativity Increase JOB SATISFACTION INTRODUCTION Job satisfaction is a great concern to any organization. As a new employee, he had limited time but ample exposure to varying degrees of job satisfaction. Job satisfaction has been the subject of research and pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experiences. An individuals attitude about his or her job should have meaningful implications about how he or she does it. Many human relations era researchers sought to establish job satisfaction. However, cited conflicting research results and questioned this view. Performance leads to job satisfaction. This has become the generally accepted view. Even so, the strength of the relationship appears to be very weak. The importance of job satisfaction lies not in its relationship with performance but with its stabling effects ( reducing tardiness, absenteeism, and turnover ) and through its effects on cohesion ( increasing organizational citizenship behaviors and ornizational commitment ). Job satisfaction appears to mediate the effects of in role performance, role conflict, and job induced tension on intent to leave and extra- role performance. MEANING Job satisfaction is one of the criteria of establishing a healthy organizational structure in an organization. Job satisfaction as general attitude of the workers constituted by their approach towards the wages, working, conditions, control, promotion related with the job, social relations in the work, reorganization of talent and some similar variables, personal characteristics, and group relations apart from life. Job satisfaction is the sentiments related with the job conducted. DEFINITION According to Happock Job satisfaction is Any combination of psychological and environmental circumstances that causes and person truthfully to say I am satisfied with my job. Job satisfaction is defined as the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job as achieving or facilitating the achievement of ones job values. THE IMPORTANCE OF JOB SATISFACTION The most importance evidence which indicates that the conditions of an organization got worsened is the low rate of job satisfaction. The job satisfaction is the condition of establishing an healthy organizational environment in an organization. Individuals want to maintain statute, high ranks and authority by giving their capabilities such as knowledge, ability, education, health etc. to their jobs for which they spend most of their time. The individuals who cannot meet their expectations with regard to their jobs become dissatisfied. Thus, this dissatisfaction affects the organization for which she/he works. Job satisfaction is very important for every persons motivation and contribution to production. Job satisfaction may diminish irregular attendance at work, replacement of workers within a cycle or even the rate of accidents. GUIDELINES FOR THE JOB SATISFACTION: Commitment to Quality Organizations are required to provide objective evidence showing Proactive involvement of the management in quality acuities through: Prioritization of equity as a critical success factor for the organization Ensuring that quality performance goals, objectives and targets are set, realized and regularly reviewed ( This may include compliance the required resources (financial, human, metirial time, information and others) Quality Policy the level of its awareness in the organization Ensres all members of the organization are involved in the quality activities shows that the management seek and receive feedback from staff, customers and others. Requires management to regulary review the quality activities throughout the organization including quality objectivities and policy is appropriate, relavant and suitable for the achievement of the organizations vision demonstrates effectiveness of the quality system through reviews and audits is played in locations readily accessible to all. Implementation of strategy Availability of documented action plans and their communication to concerned people. Steps taken by the organization to ensure successfully implementation of quality activities ( by such techniques as determining its strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats- SWOT or ensuring that planned activites are SMART- specific , Measurable, Achivable, Realistic and Timed) How the organization monitors or keeps track of progress in the implementation of its activates. Whether the organization carries out planned reviews and updating of the activates /plans during implementation. Customer and market focus The criteria seeks to find out how organizations reach out to existing and potential customers and how they address the markets place and customer quality requirements, expectations, needs and wants. Also organization are required to show how they care for their customers and ensure their satisfaction. Customer needs identification The organization has a documentated procedure for the collection of information on customer needs and markets place quality demands. The organization find out the short and long term stated and implied needs , wishes and wants of the existing and potential customers. Organization decides which customer requirements to focus on and which market segments to serve. Organizations establishments care education. Organization establishes, sustain and improve its relations with customers and others. The organization educate its customers on how to make best use of the products or serves and what records are kept for customer care and education activities conducted. Customer satisfaction measurements and monitoring The organization carries out measurement s and monitoring to establish levels of customer satisfaction. The organization handle complains and review and improve current customer satisfaction levels. FACTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION To better understand employees attitudes and motivation, Fedric Hezberg performed studies to determine which factor in an employees work environment caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction Hezberg found that the factors causing job satisfaction were different from those causing job satisfaction . He developed the motivation hygine from those causing job dissatisfaction. He developed the motivation hygiene theory to explain these results. He developed the satisfaction .He called the satisfiers as motivators and dissatisfies as hygiene factors that factors , using the term hygine in the sense that they are considered maintenance factors that are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction Hezberg reasoned that because the factor causing satisfaction are different from those causing dissatisfaction, the two feelings can not simply be treated as opposites of one another. The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction but rather no satisfaction . Similarly the opposite of dissatisfaction is always dissatisfaction. Employee satisfaction and retention have always been important issues for physicians. After all, high levels of absenteeism and staff turnover can affect yours bottom line, as temps recruit mint and retraining take toll. But few practices (in fact, few organizations ) have made job satisfaction a top priority, perhaps because they have failed to understand the significant opportunity that lies in front of them . Satisfied employees tend to be more productive, creative and committed to their employers, and recent studies have shown a direct correlation between staff satisfaction and patient satisfaction. Family physicians who can create work environment that attract, motivate and retain hard working individuals will be better positioned to succeed in a competitive health care environment that demands quality and cost- efficiency. What is more, physicians may even discover that by creating a positive work place for their employees, they have increased their own job satisfaction as well . HERZBERGS THEORY In the late 1950s, Fredric Herzberg, considered by many to be a pioneer in motivation theory, interviewed a group of employees to find out what made them satisfied and dissatisfied on the job. He asked the employees essentially two sets of questions: Think of a time felt especially good about your job. Why did you fell that way ? Think of a time when you felt especially bad about your job. Why did you feel that way ? From these interviews Herzberg went on to develop his theory that there are to dimensions to job satisfactions : motivation and hygine'(see Two dimensions of employee satisfaction ) Hygine issues, according to Hezberg, can not motivate employees but can minimize dissatisfaction, if handled properly. In order words, they can only dissatisfy if they are absent or mishandled. Hygine topics include company policies, super vision, salary, interpersonal relations and working conditions. They are issues related to the employees environment. Motivators, on the other hand, create satisfaction by fulfilling individuals needs for meaning personal growth. They are issues such as achievement, reorganization ,the work itself ,responsibility and advancement, Once the hygine areas are addressed said Herberg, the motivators will promote job satisfaction and encourage production. APPLYING THE THEORY To apply Herzbergs theory to real- world practice, lets begin with the hygiene issues. Although hygiene issues are not the source of satisfaction, these issues must be dealt with first to create an environment in which employee satisfaction and motivation are even possible. COMPANY AND ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES An organizations policies cabin be aggregate source of frustration for employees if the policies are unclear or unnecessary or if not every one is require to fallow them. Although employees will never feel a great since of motivation or satisfaction due to your policies, you can decrees dissatisfaction in this area by making your policies are fair and apply equally to all. Also, make printed copies of your policies and procedures manual easily accessible to all members of your staff if you dont have a written manual, create one ,soliciting staff in put along the way if already have manual, consider updating it ( again, with staff in put ). You might also impair your policies to those of similar practices and ask yourself whether particular policies are unreasonably strict are whether some penalties are too harsh. SUPERVISION To decrease dissatisfaction in this area , you must begin by making wise decisions when you appoint some to the role of supervisor. Be aware that good employees do not always make good supervisors. The role of supervisor is extremely difficult. It require leadership skills and the ability to treat all employees fairly. You should teach your supervisors to use positive feedback whenever possible and should establish a set means of employee evaluation and feedback so that no one feels singled out. SALARY The old adage you get what you for tents to be true when it comes to staff members. Salary is not a motivator for employees, but they do want to be paid fairly. If individuals believe they are not compensated well, They will be unhappy working for you. Consult salary surveys or even your local heap-wanted ads to see whether the salaries and benefits youre offering are comparable to those of other offices in your area. In addition, make sure you have clear policies related to salaries, raises and bonuses. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS Remember that part of the satisfaction of being employed is the social contact it brings, so allow employees a reasonable amount of time for socialization (e.g. Over lunch, during breaks, between patients ). This will help them develop a sense of camaraderie and teamwork. At the same time, you should crack down on rudeness, inappropriate behavior and offensive, comments. If an individual continues to be disruptive, take chare of the situation, perhaps by dismissing him or her from the practice. WORKING CONDITIONS The environment in which people work has a tremendous effect on their level of pride for themselves and for the wok they are doing. Do everything you can to keep your equipment and facilities up to date. Even a nice can make a world of difference to an individuals psyche. Also, if possible, avoid over crowing and allow each employee his or her own personal space, whether it be a desk, a clerk, locker or even just a drawer. If youve placed your employees in close quarters with little or no personal space, do not be surprised that there is tension among them. Before you move on to the motivators, remember that you cannot neglect the hygiene factors discussed above. To do so would be asking for trouble in more than one way. First, your employees would be generally happy, and this would be apprent to your patients. Second, your hand working employees, who can find jobs elsewhere, would leave, while your mediocre employees would stay and compromise your practices success. So deal with hygiene issues first then move on to the motivators: WORK IT SELF Perhaps most important to employees motivation is healing individuals believe that the work they are doing is important and that their tasks are meaningful. Emphasize that contributions to the practice result in positive outcomes and good health care for your patients . Share stories of success about how an employees actions made area difference in the life of a patient, or in making a process better. Make a big deal out of meaningful tasks that have become ordinary, such as new- baby visits. ACHIEVEMENTS One premise inherent in Herzbergs theory is that most individuals sincerely want to do a good job. To help them, make sure youve placed them in positions that use their talents and are not set up for failure. Set clear, achievable goals and slandered for each position ,and make sure employees know what those goals and standards are. Individuals should also receive regular, timely feedback on how they are doing and should feel they are being adequately challenged in their job. Be careful, how ever, not to overload individuals with challenges that are too difficult are impossible, as that can be paralyzing. RECOGNITION Individuals at all levels of the organization want to be recognized for their achievements on the job. Their successes dont have to be monumental before they deserve recognition, but your praise should be sincere. If you notice employees doing something well, take the time it acknowledge their good work immediately publicly thank them for handling a situation particularly well. Write them a kind to establish a formal recognition program, such as employee of the month. RESPONSIBILITY Employees will be more motivate to do their jobs well if they have owner ship of their work. This requires giving employees enough freedom and power to carry out their tasks so that they feel they own the result. As individuals mature in their jobs, provide opportunities for added responsibility. ADVANCEMENT Reward loyalty and performance with advancement. If you do not have an open position to which to promote a valuable employee, consider giving him or her a new title that reflects the level of work he or she has achieved. When feasible, support employees by allowing them to pursuer further education, when feasible, support employees by allowing them to pursuer further education, which will make them more valuable to your practice. HOW TO IMPROVE JOB SATISFACTION: Provide workers with responsibility- and let them use it Show respect Recognize The Whole Person Mark out a clear path to growth Work flexibility in organizations. HOW ORGANIZATION PLANS FOR FUTURE JOB SATISFACTION It identifies sources of job satisfaction and disaffection and among administrative and support staff and describes their impact. It examines staff plans for the future, and the likelihood of them remaining within the higher education sector. GENERAL SOURCES OF JOB SATISFACTION Most of the distractive staff who took part in the focus groups gained satisfaction from the role they played in higher education. They were less satisfied with developments in higher education which had eroded the rewards gained from working in the sector. Staff expressed a strong commitment to higher education and the contribution they were making to the greater good. Most staff derived great job satisfaction from this than they would from a job offering only monetary rewards. Staff also felt that working in higher education was socially rewarding. Several identified the friendly and supportive relationships they had developed with students and colleagues as being something which which gave them great satisfaction. One said I work students all the timethey are very enthusiastic and that rubs off on you. This was particularly the case for staff based in department with opportunities to build relationships with students. They had gained considerable satisfaction from watching students move through the higher education courses. These tangible outcomes were highly valued by some staff. Many staff appreciated the fact that the structure of higher education enabled them to work in small enough units to develop close working relationships with their colleagues. One commented because theres only a limited number of people, you get to know people from all across the library. You actually really like your own staff thats a nice feeling. They also valued the opportunities which working in higher education offered to meet other people working in different departments. Specific sources of job satisfaction In addition to these strong general themes of satisfaction, more specific sources of job satisfaction were linked to how staff entered higher education. The niche-finders This group of staff gained job satisfaction from the factors which had initially attracted them to higher education. They liked the variety offered by their work in higher education. They found their jobs interesting and stimulating. More important, they expressed the belief that, despite the increasing pressure of their jobs, higher education remained a less stressful working environment than the private sector and still compared favourably to the private sector. Yet many felt that the gap between the two sectors was closing. The job is interesting, but unfortunately that interest is becoming a pressure now. I mean I still enjoy my job (but theres no time to) sit back and enjoy it. The subject specialists Staff in this group also derived most of their job satisfaction fro the factors which had originally attracted them to higher education. They still appreciated the opportunity to work in a stimulating and interesting environment. Most also felt that they had developed intellectually from contact with academics and students. The subject specialists often displayed higher levels of job satisfaction then the niche-finders because of their commitment to their subject and the satisfaction they derived from pursuing their interest or specialism. One explained.. my passion in life is careers education thats all I think about. (1) absolutely love it. An administrator elaborated further: It is the subject, not the job, I enjoy, I am actually earning money out of doing something that I enjoy its purely because I am actually earning money doing something that I enjoy doing. It is the subject, not the system. This group of staff gained particular satisfaction from their involvement with academic staff and students who were working in their subject area. The new professionals: This was clearly the group of staff who were getting the most satisfaction from working in higher education, at the time of the group discussions. Rather than being threatened or undermined by recent developments in higher education, they were products of the change. They benefited from the direction and pace of change and valued the dynamism of a rapidly changing environment. One explained. I like my work. I was interested in (the subject) and I saw a job advertised, but it is ..improved. You know Ive grown into the job. These staff, more than any other group of administrative and support staff, believed that they received recognition for the role they played within higher education. They were also the only group who said that they felt valued and appreciated by the new management culture. Some of the younger members of this group also perceived themselves to be relatively well paid for the work that they did. General sources of job dissatisfaction Unlike job satisfaction sources of job dissatisfaction were not strongly related to individuals original motivations for working in higher education. This was because: General levels of dissatisfaction were high among all staff; and The factors causing dissatisfaction related more to the context within which staff worked, rather than their specific individual circumstances. Several important, recurring themes were raised in all of the group discussions. Lack of opportunities for progression The biggest single source of job dissatisfaction identified by staff was the nature of the career structure for administrative and support staff. The experiences of the high proportion of staff who where stuck at the top of their grade with no possibility of progression as have the general feelings about the lack of career prospects. Dissatisfaction was intensified by the perception that regarding decisions were motivated by financial concerns rather than judgments about individuals performance or the demands of their job. Lack of recognition Dissatisfaction of staff around lack of recognition was not simply related to an inability to make progress in their careers. Most of the anger and frustration staff expressed focused on their perception that their lack of opportunities result from a general low regard for administrative and support functions within higher education. This lack of recognition ahs probably always existed in higher education. Yet significant changes in the roles and responsibilities of administrative and support functions within higher education and the increasingly important central role these staff now play. Despite these changes, staff believed that their contribution was still neither recognized nor valued. Administrative and support staff who worked closely with academics were particularly likely to feel undervalued. They found that academics either dismissed their views or did not consult them at all. Many felt that the academics they worked with did not recognize the importance of the service they provided. A central administrator said: I dont like dealing with (academics) they dont think (my jobs) important and they think its a waste of time. I dont like dealing with (them). A departmental administrator agreed. I do think they sometimes think they are above the admin. As a result, administrative and support staff often felt their work was undermined by academic staff. Staff attributed the undervaluing of administrative and support staff at least in part, to the fact that their work went largely unnoticed. For many of them, the most important indicator of success was that systems ran smoothly and efficiently without giving other people cause for complaint. In this sense, they were only visible when systems broke down or went wrong. One said: . If youre doing wrong its clearly shown This is wrong. But if you do something right its never told Youve done right. So you always are in the repeat state of (thinking) This might be wrong. A computer officer explained: with the advent of the new technologies and advances of IT more has been able to go wrong. And when they go wrong, they go wrong in a slightly more spectacular manner. And academics always pick up on this even when no member of the university is at fault, we are the first people into the nest, because.. we should know about these things. This lack of recognition and reward for good performance was common to all staff and contributed considerably to negative feelings about their job. One said: It would be nice if its recognized elsewhere, from the management and staff saying Yes, you have done a good job. You are achieving. You are somebody who we are lucky to have. Another expressed a similar sentiment, saying: You do need those pats on the back. You do need those. Pay The issue of financial rewards was a further source of job dissatisfaction for most administrative and support staff and was strongly related to concerns about progression and recognition. The basis for staff dissatisfaction, however, was not simply low pay. Most of them had knowingly entered a relatively low-paid sector. Their dissatisfaction stemmed from their belief that their pay levels did not recognize the increasingly central role played by administrative and support staff within higher education. Nor had their pay scales kept up with the growing level of responsibility that administrative and support staff were taking on. An administrator explained. Im on a secretarial grade and secretarial pay but Im. actual

To What Extent Can Psychology Be Considered a Science?

To What Extent Can Psychology Be Considered a Science? Examine to what extent Psychology can be considered a Science Rebecca Harris Introduction The question can: ‘Psychology be considered a Science?’ It is important to understand what a Science is in relation to Psychology. Psychology is deemed as the scientific study of behaviour. Science is ‘a branch of knowledge conducted on objective principles involving the systematised observation of an experiment with phenomena.’ So can Psychology be a Science? Throughout this essay, deeper understanding of Psychological Methods and the aims of Science and how these link, will be looked at and investigated further. There are four basic principles of Science; truth, objectivity, realism and rationality. For psychology to be perceived as a science certain scientific methodology would be needed, these are: objective observation, evidence to back up an argument, an investigation to test the hypothesis, an induction which draws conclusions from facts or examples, repetition, critical analysis and verification and testing of the study. Empiricism, a scientific approach founded by philosopher John Locke (1632-1704), turned into a scientific method of enquiry that used both observation and experiments to gather facts and evidence that may have been needed. Scientific enquiry can be based upon two phrases: 1. Too do with theory and the foundation of hypotheses. 2. Empirical method, thus being experiments and observations. The main method of scientific enquiry would be the use of experiments. Using examinations make research more scientific. Important key features for an experiment are control over variables, in this case they would either be: Independent, dependent and extraneous. This particular approach would be a strength towards Psychology as a Science as cause and effect can be established due to the control over the experiments. A form of Empiricism is Logical Positivism. This theory suggests that sensory experience is our main and only source of information about the world we live in. There are two main claims for this theory: Knowledge Empiricism- The theory that the knowledge of the world is gained through evidence from our sensory experiences. The theory states that the meaning of a statement is determined by verifiability. Verification must be through observation. This is an advantage of Psychology as a Science as behaviour is looked at through observation and so therefore this means that verification can happen. Rationalism compared to Empiricism is that senses cannot be completely relied upon to provide knowledge needed. Knowledge can be gained by inductive reasoning, as long as it’s applied correctly. Rationalists look at the world we live in and see deeper meaning behind everything they see, implying that the world is not real. Empiricists see the world we’re living in as the true world and that everything we see does not have a deeper meaning. Idealism and realism are two philosophical terms that deal with our minds relationship with the world in which we live. Idealism: knowledge that the mind interprets what we see. The knowledge that constructs the mind and does not necessarily correspond to the on goings of the outside world. What we see is not really real. Realism: the idea that knowledge reveals the reality of the outside world. Thus meaning that, it is what it is, you see what you see. This is a disadvantage for Psychology as a Science as it can’t be proven or disproven that whether the world we live in is real or not. Locke took on the nature-nurture debate, the first part to the theory of behaviourism and came up with the idea that the human mind is a ‘tabula rasa’ meaning ‘blank slate’. In 1913 Watson gained the support that Wundt had lost and formed behaviourism. Wundt concentrated on introspection, however, Watson believed that this couldn’t be proved or disproved so decided to concentrate on the study of behavior. Behaviourism as a theory of Psychology was finally created. The overall meaning of behaviourism is to study the idea of the relationship between people’s environment and their behaviour, without application to hypothetical events happening within one’s head. The use of behaviour today can be seen as Scientific, helping mentally ill patients with behaviour modification and therapy to treat mental disorders. Modern behaviour now looks at mental processes like; imagery and attention, considered to be proper subject matter for scientific in vestigation. Positivism a form of behaviourism that uses experimental methods, as well as quantitative data. Conclusions are not derived from a subjective approach. The conscious can’t be objectively observed. It rejects emotions, feelings and mental processes and qualitative data is not used, so evidence that is collected is limited. Therefore not Scientific and disagrees with psychology as a Science. Social Constructionist: a social situation which we face, our behavior dependent upon the social situation so it’s not scientific. If people behave in a certain way then this leads to personality bias. Rather than looking at the behaviour in a social setting, research should be on the relative social construction. This looks at social cognition: what we think other people are thinking. This is a disadvantage to why psychology is a science as it’s difficult to apply research as the focus would be on subjective constructions. Critical Realism looks at experience, culture and history when conducting observations and theories. It applies scientific practice to multiple methods of data collection. We are aware of a situation and act critical about what we’re doing. It gives us ideas on how to research and it uses multiple approaches, so the comparison of results can take place. This is an advantage to why Psychology is a Science due to the multiple research methods used rigorously: including experimental method. A hypothetico-deductive method is a technique which involves observation of a participant. In order for the hypotheses to be classified scientific the researcher must generate a testable and realistic hypothesis, it must be falsifiable by recognized scientific methods. It can never be confirmed fully. Some predictions must be made, these are to be proved or disproved. The predictions must be directly testable for the hypothetico-deductive method to be valid. Trying to test the hypothesis that God exists would be difficult because there is no way to scientifically evaluate it. This is an advantage of why psychology is a science as observation, the gathering and collecting of data is used. Kuhn 1922-1996 was a historian and had a great impact on revolutionary psychology in the field of paradigms. The idea was to unite all thoughts and opinions on the subject. With the success of this came Psychologies biggest and most feared alienation: the inability for a universal paradigm. This is the greatest criticism to Psychologies claim to be Scientific. Kuhn himself gave psychology a name: Pseudo-Science. The fact that a universal paradigm can’t be formed means that this is a disadvantage towards Psychology as a Science, as all scientific methods should have paradigms. Popper 1902-1994 a philosopher with strong opinions towards whether Psychology is a Science. He believed that for a theory to be scientific it doesn’t have to be true. Facts can show theories to be wrong. He had two major concerns, the first was defending and maintaining the idea that Science does progress. This concern was built in the positivist account that facts can and do verify theories. Popper believed that this part of the society was being put at risk due to ‘pseudo-scientific’ theories that were not open to rejection, thus in particular: Freud and his idea of Psychoanalysis. Poppers view of falsification was a disadvantage of why Psychology is a Science as Freud and psychoanalysis led to the argument that psychological theories are not falsifiable. According to Kuhn; the lack of ecological validity is a disadvantage to why Psychology has a lack of acknowledgement within scientific communities. If a study was based on Behaviourism, a key theory of Psychology, then there are some key ideologies that the investigation should have: generalization, reinforcement and behaviour shaping. This in turn explains vast behaviours from language acquisition through too moral development. In Science, conclusions always remain true, however, in Psychology, this is not the case. When a piece of research is conducted in an artificial environment, the participants are aware of the study and may act and behave differently. This being demand characteristics, it affects the overall result, as there are no form of applications to everyday life. It can also be argued that; it’s low on the idea of application to real life due to the participants behaviour i.e. demand characteristics. This was showed in Piaget study of Conservation. In 1974 McGarrigle and Donaldson challenged Piaget. The children within the Piaget study were not in a natural setting and behaved socially correct and responded to demand characteristics. If a study is low in ecological validity then it isn’t really measuring how people behave in everyday life. The main problem for this is how to study characteristics of people who are aware of what they are doing. This is a disadvantage to Psychology being a science as participants are aware of the study and the unnatural setting. In conclusion to the question: Is Psychology a Science? There is no easy answer. Some of the approaches and studies do meet the guidelines that are required for Psychology to be a Science, however, others don’t. Psychology has merely progressed as a discipline as it models itself on the natural sciences. Although there are enough disadvantages and advantages to say whether Psychology is a Science, it will be an ongoing debate to which no-one will know the answer, you simply have an opinion that’s neither right nor wrong. REFERENCES Gross, R. (2010). Psychology The Science of Mind and Behaviour. 6th ed. London: Hatchett . McLeod, S. (2008). Psychology as a Science. Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/science-psychology.html. [Last Accessed 07/10/2014]. Bainbridge, A. Bradshaw, P. Latham, S. Lintern, F. (2008). OCR Psychology. 1st ed. Essex: Heinemann. Carlson, R. N. (1993). Psychology The Science of Behaviour. 4th ed. MA, USA: Allyn Bacon. Brysbaert, M. Rastle, K. (2012). Historical and conceptual issues in psychology. 2nd ed. London: Pearson . The Science Council. (2009). What is Science? Available at: http://www.sciencecouncil.org/definition. [Last Accessed 21/10/2014]. Group decision making: Communication theories Group decision making: Communication theories Functional Perspective On Group Decision Making Introduction Purpose The purpose of this report is introducing a theory and corresponding theorists of communication. Whereas also in this report I will be writing about the theorists, their theory and how I believe it relates to todays world. One other purpose of writing this report is to report what I think about how the theory could be useful in the Information Technology. Scope The extent of my research was the usage of the Library and internet surfing. Hours and hours were spent in the library searching for information on my topic and there was hardly any book with information on my theory but had information of related topics to my theory. So as on the internet the information given Limitations While preparing this report there were some limitations in the preparation of this report which includes the amount of time given to write this report because there was other assignments that I had to spend time on as well which was due a few days before this report is to be handed in. The limited time that I am able to access the computer here in school as I house Im living in do not have any computers. Other than that there was a lack of information got from the sources of information that I have searched on such as books from the library and books and articles from the internet and library databases. There was a lack of information available. Research Methods The few methods that I have used to obtain information were books from the library. This included my textbook. My textbook was the only book in the library that had information about my theory and some other books that I have read through had information that was related to my theory. I also obtained information from the internet although it provided some information on my theory but not so much or not enough. Lastly is I have contact with some of the ex-whitireia students who took IT, I contacted each one I know asking if they had come across my theory and if they could their knowledge of my theory with me. Structure Of The Report This report has six main parts and each part was organised according to the normal layout of a report. Besides the cover page this report started with an abstract which spots out the key ideas of what the whole report is going to be about, lead by the table of content which shows the number of pages for each content. Starting with the introduction which has six sub-headings, following is the findings or the main body of the report which has seven parts and following up is always the conclusion which has two parts and lastly the glossary of terms and references / bibliography. Literature Review Groups make high-quality decisions when members fulfil four requisite functions: (1) problem analysis, (2) goal setting, (3) identification of alternatives, and (4) evaluation of positive and negative consequences. Most group communication disrupts progress toward accomplishing these functional tasks, but counteractive communication can bring people back to rational inquiry. Randy, H., Dennis, G. (2009). Functional perspective on group decision making. Group and Public communication – Group decision making. Chp. 17, 7th Ed The purpose of this investigation was to demonstrate that group decision-making performance is contingent on the effective or ineffective satisfaction of important decisional functions. The investigation involved three related studies. In the first study, an attempt was made to confirm the existence of systematic relationships between the quality of group decisions and the satisfaction of four functional requirements. The results supported the existence of significant positive relationships between group decision-making performance and the satisfaction of these decisional functions. In the second study, an attempt was made to establish the independent main effects of each of those four functions. Using a three-dimensional interaction coding scheme, it was found that variations in group decision quality can be independently accounted for by the quality of interaction in regards to three functions—problem analysis, evaluation of positive qualities, and evaluation of negative qua lities. In the third study, an attempt was made to demonstrate that the quality of group decisions can be traced to the effective or ineffective satisfaction of decisional functions. The results provide conclusive evidence (at least at the level of primary reasoning), that the quality of a groups decision is a direct result of the groups ability (or inability) to perform important decisional functions. Taken as a whole, the studies thus offer continued support for the functional perspective Randy, H. (1998). Group Communication and Decision-Making Performance A Continued Test of the Functional Perspective. Human Communication Research, Vol. 14, p487 – 515, No. 4 Two Articles From The Library Databases The article focuses on a study, which evaluated the comparative effectiveness of several methods for decisions making of task groups. Despite the widespread use of task groups and the dissatisfaction that many experience in seemingly endless rounds of task-group meetings, relatively little effort has been made within social work to examine the functioning of task groups empirically. And although there have been some efforts to improve social workers skills in leading task groups, it has been suggested that the study of task groups has been largely abandoned by social work. When examining the efficacy of task groups, it is important to recognize that groups have many different functions in social service agencies. Among their most important functions are helping staff members feel involved in the work of the agency or organization, sharing information, developing new and creative ideas, monitoring programs, solving problems and making decisions. Although many of these functions overla p, a group that has accomplished one function quite well may not be effective at accomplishing another function. Toseland, RonaldW., Rivas, Robert F., Chapman D. (1984). An evaluation of decision making methods task groups. EBSCO host – Social work, Vol. 29 Issue 4, p339-346, 8p Title: Teachers beliefs about shared decision making and work alienation Relationships between teachers perceptions concerning their status in decision making and feelings of work alienation were investigated. A two part questionnaire was administered to 311 teachers from kindergarten through grade 12 in urban and suburban schools. One part asked about current and ideal levels of influence in 12 decisional areas. The second part consisted of a four-item alienation scale. Significant positive zeroder correlations were found between alienation and deprivation in technical and managerial domains for urban teachers, and with deprivation in managerial decision making for suburban teachers. Significant negative zero-order correlations were found for both groups of teachers. Partial correlations of alienation and deprivation in decision making were not significant. Partial correlations of alienation with perceived influence in technical decision making were significant for both groups. Partials with managerial influence were significant for urban teachers. Benson, N., Malone, P. (1987), Teachers beliefs about shared decision making and work alienation. EBSCO host – Education, Vol. 107 Issue 3, p244, 8p, 6 charts Friends Background Of My Theorists The knowledge and interest in small group communication and decision making effectiveness, of two Communication professors Randy Hirokawa and Dennis Gouran was combined to create this theory. Dennis S. Gouran Gouran is a Professor of Communication Arts and Sciences, Labor Studies and Employment Relations and Graduate Officer and his research areas is small group decision. During his life of education he received his B.S., Illinois State University, 1963, M.S., Illinois State University, 1965, Ph.D., University of Iowa, 1968 He is specialized in small group communication with particular emphasis in decision-making. His research has included theoretical, experimental, and critical studies of small group interaction. The focus of Gourans research interest is the ways in which communication functions in the service of task requirements in problem-solving and decisions-making groups. Randy Y. Hirokawa Hirokawa received his B.A from the University of Hawaii at Moana, and his M.A and Ph.D from the University of Washington. He was inducted into the University Of Washington Department Of Hall of Fame. He is known for his expertise in area of small group communication and decision-making effectiveness. Hirokawas scholarship has contributed to the development of a theory called the â€Å"Functional perspective.† Outline Of My Theory Situation Of How The Theory Came About This theory came about as a four departmental search committees appointed to select final candidates for positions in rhetoric, theatre, journalism and broadcast producing. The whole department each group to come up with top-notch candidates and reliable with a discipline that values sensible and reasonable communication or discussion, it was likely supposed that they would make their high quality decisions after systematic and reasoned discussion. Given was the mix of communication interests, academic knowledge and professional prejudices that committee members bought to the table were not their final choices likely to be made on political rather than rational grounds. But even if they were objective, it was a fear that their free-for-all debate over candidates would so cloud their judgement that they would end up making second-rate choices. Theorists Point Of Views Of The Situation And Their Contribution To Building The Theory Hirokawa and Gouran believe that these negative and gloomy views are not necessary. They assume that group members caring about the issue are; reasonably intelligent, face a challenging task that calls for more facts and has new ideas, or a clear thinking. They are also persuaded that group communication has positive effect on the final decision. Hirokawa Randy speaks of the quality solutions and developed the core principles of the theory during his graduate studies, today his research tests refines this theory. Gouran Dennis refers to decisions that are appropriate and he has laid ground work for the theory with his early writing on the group decision making. Four Functions For Effective Decision Making By observing group decision making Hirokawa and Gouran see that there are task requirements and conditions that group members needs to accomplished to reach high-quality solutions and they refer to these conditions as â€Å"requisite functions of effective decision making.† Along with other pioneers research Hirokawa and Gouran drew an analogy between small groups and biological systems and saw thats just the same conditions that an organism must go through for survival in an ever changing environment as group members must go through functions or have conditions during group decision makings for success in the choice they make. So then four functions were then created for effective decision making as followed. Analysis Of The Problem It is very important for group members to be realistic when looking at the current conditions of any situation that is facing a problem and if there is any misunderstanding of the situation be likely to be complex when each member makes their final decision. The situation here is that the search committee are facing difficulties in selecting candidates which is a problem. They could barely make up their mind. In such cases the group members needs to examine or investigate what the problem really is, then find ways to work out this problem. Analysing of the problem could also have steps to follow or some conditions that must be required. For example from the theory in one of the departments searches for a rhetorician, a theatre director etc presented no obvious difficulties, in this case a job description was drafted and advertised throughout the company and through relationship management , searched for parties whom may be interested. Goal Setting Decision making needs to be clear and concise, therefore there must be some form of criteria for a proposed solution. Hirokawa and Gouran mention that failure to comply with criteria will drive the decision to be governed by politics rather than reason. An example portrayed by the two authors is the recruiting of faculty – criteria were: Doctorate Teaching Experience (Minimum 5 Years) Scholar Publisher And to narrow the search, candidates must be able to engage / build rapport with students and who is able to pursue knowledge from a liberal arts point of view. In having criterias during decision making, this gives the group a short list of candidates and more confidence in their decision. Identifications Of Alternatives To minimise risk in making a decision, Hirokawa and Gouran stressed the significance of having alternative solutions, so that the group can always resort to plan B or plan C. In the case of finding a candidate for a Broadcast production role, the criteria was industry experience, hold a doctorate / masters, radio and broadcast experience. The search for the candidate was limited as not many had an advanced degree no-one had a background in video production. After many brainstorming sessions, this was given to a search committee to do more thorough research for the perfect candidate. As a result of continuous emails and networking – the search committee generated relevant alternatives and discovered two candidates whom they will chose one to fulfil the role. Evaluation Of Positive And Negative Characteristics The next step in decision making is weighing the alternatives. It is very important to look at the pro and cons of each option against the criteria given. The authors mention that decision making often muddles up, and in need of at least one member to remind each other of the positive and negative features of one option. Prioritizing These Functions In order to make decisions one must prioritize the four main functions for effective decision making. Hirokawa and Gouran mentioned that all four functions need to be accomplished to maximise the probability of a high quality decision. They also mention that as long as members use all four functions, what ever the order they like, they will come to a successful decision making. However, groups that resolve particularly difficult situation often take a similar route to come to their final solution. The Role Of Communication In Fulfilling The Functions Communication is the key factor for quality group decision making. Verbal discussion within a group makes it possible to disseminate information, identify errors and also to influence each other. Hirokawa believes that communication plays a vital role in shaping high quality decisions. They also believe that communication through discussion can also make the group wander in different directions and at the same time pull them back onto the directed path. The authors outline three types of communication in decision making groups: 1) Promotive –When the group moves along the same path and calling upon the four main decision functions. 2) Disruptive – Discussions that divert the group members away from the four main decision functions. 3) Counteractive- The interaction that the group use to get each other back on track. The three types of communication above are then aligned with the four functions to create the â€Å"Function-Oriented Interaction Coding System: (FOICS) Checklist. This register is used to analyse communication within a group by matching each column and each row like the diagram below: From The Tiny Pond To The Big Ocean The above metaphor is Hirokawas way of portraying the review of his functional perspective in decision making , the risks that take place within his laboratory during his research and whether it was strong enough to withstand the multiple opposing forces from the ‘real world and other researchers. Hirokawa concludes this metaphor by saying that there are times when following the prescriptions of decision making does not always lead to a decision that works. He then challenges researchers not to look at the outcome but look at what functional conditions work and what does not work. Practical Advice For Amateurs And Professionals The authors give us advice on how to use functional prospective to come up with better decision making. They suggest the following: For groups to use their own opinions. For groups to not have a close minded attitude. Groups to take proactive measures and reflective thinking. The authors acknowledge their intellectual their philosopher) John Dewey. Dewey advocated a six step process of â€Å"reflective thinking† (equivalent to Hirokawa and Gourans four requisite function) to the approach of treating a patient. His steps were as follows: 1) Recognise the illness 2) Diagnose the cause of the illness 3) Establish options for cure 4) Consider possible remedies 5) Test which solution will work 6) Implement the best solution Deweys process above is very similar to Hirokawa and Gourans four requisite functions in decision making. Both of these lists recommend that group members discuss ways that promotes problem analysis, goal setting, finding alternatives and the evaluation of these options. Applications Of The Theory This theory can be applied to everyday situations, whether its at work, home, IT industry or anywhere of any situation where group members take part. Every time group member gather to make decision on some issues they will always be facing problem. Because each group member has different opinions of each situation or there would only be two or three members agreeing on the same situation. So therefore Hirokawa and Gouran have developed four functions to follow for effective group decision making. Not only that these two theorists has also written the roles to fulfilling these functions. This theory can be applied to the IT Industry because there is a situation that needs to be discussed as a group for whats good to be used in the IT industries. Evaluation Of The Theory From the chapter three of Griffin (Weighing the Words) I have applied the appropriate evaluative standards to your theory which is Scientific Standard 2: Prediction of Future Events. This standard states a good objective theory predicts what will happen and it is only possible when we are dealing with our five senses. Applying this to my theory is that each of these group members sees the situation and they hear what is being talked about in the group discussion to whether to agree or disagree is based on how they feel about the situation and think of the situation. This is to prevent problems that may happen in the future because it isnt prevented same problem will occur in the future. Conclusion Summary Of My Points Of Information Hirokawa and Gouran saw the situation and thought of ways to maintain it. They saw that just the same way that an organism must go through for survival in an ever changing environment is just the same way that group members must go through functions or have conditions during group decision makings for success in the choice they make. They then developed the four functions which are; Analysis of the problem, goal setting, identification of alternatives and evaluation of Positive and Negative characteristics. They also state the importance or prioritizing these functions and its roles to fulfilling these functions. They also stated a metaphor â€Å" From tiny pond to the big ocean†. A Critique Of My Theory (Weight Of Argument For And Against) This theory accounts for group decision-making performance in terms of the role that group communication plays in facilitating or impeding the groups efforts to perform cognitive and interpersonal decision-making functions. This theory has been identified as one of the three most influential theories of small group communication. The functional perspective that has been described in this theory illustrates the wisdom of the joint interaction. As the Hebrew proverb suggests, â€Å"Without counsel plans go wrong, but with many advisers they succeed.† Decision making can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives. Every decision making process produces a final the output can be an action or an opinion of choice The next step in decision making is weighing the alternatives. It is very important to look at the pro and cons of each option against the criteria given. The authors mention that decision making often muddles up, and in need of at least one member to remind each other of the positive and negative features of one option. Glossary Of Terms Perspective Position: a way of regarding situations or topics or the appearance of things relative to one another as determined by their distance from the viewer Functional Designed for or capable of a particular function or use Evaluation Act of ascertaining or fixing the value Requisite Necessity: anything indispensable or needed Promotive Interaction that moves the group along the goal path by calling attention to one of the four requisite Disruptive Interaction that diverts, retards, or frustrates group members ability to achieve the four task functions Counteractive Interaction that members use to get the group back on track Amateurs An amateur is generally considered a person attached to a particular pursuit, study, or science, without formal training or pay Decision Making Can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives. Group decision Is decision making in groups consisting of multiple members/entities. The challenge of group decision is deciding what action a group should take. There are various systems designed to solve this problem References / Bibliography â€Å"A Critical Summary of Research on the Role of Argument in Decision-Making Groups.† In Argument and Social Practice: Proceedings of the Fourth SCA/AFA Conference on Argumentation. J. Robert Cox, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Gregg B. Walker (Eds.). Annandale, Virginia: Speech Communication Association, 1985. 14 pp. (Revised and reprinted in Readings in Argumentation. William L. Benoit, Dale Hample, and Pamela J. Benoit (Eds.). San Francisco: Foris, 1992. 17 pp.) Benson, N., Malone, P. (1987), Teachers beliefs about shared decision making and work alientation. EBSCO host – Education, Vol. 107 Issue 3, p244, 8p, 6 charts Griffin, E. (2009). A first look at communication theory. (7th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Randy, H., Dennis, G. (2009). Functional perspective on group decision making. (7th ed.). Group and Public communication – Group decision making. Chp. 17 Randy, H. (1998). Group Communication and Decision-Making Performance A Continued Test of the Functional Perspective. Human Communication Research, Vol. 14, p487 – 515, No. 4 â€Å"The Role of Communication in Decision-Making Groups: A Functional Perspective.† In Communications in Transition. Mary S. Mander (Ed.). New York: Praeger, 1983. 21 pp. With Randy Y. Hirokawa. (First Author) Toseland, RonaldW., Rivas, Robert F., Chapman D. (1984). An evaluation of decision making methods task groups. EBSCO host – Social work, Vol. 29 Issue 4, p339-346, 8p Internet Sources Benson, N., Malone, P., Teachers beliefs about shared decision making and work alientation. Retrieved on July 28, 2009 , from http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=1hid=108sid=c11c7b30-a902-46f1-96a5-9d484e1b62b8%40sessionmgr110bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=f5hAN=5271089 Toseland, RonaldW., Rivas, Robert F., Chapman D. ,An evaluation of decision making methods task groups. Retrieved on August 1, 2009, From http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=1hid=12sid=cc76eb43-f251-4f74-870f-20d856b51553%40sessionmgr4bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=f5hAN=4708464 Randy, H., Dennis, G. (2009). Functional perspective on group decision making. Group and Public communication, Retrieved on July 19, 2009, from http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119457900/abstract?CRETRY=1SRETRY=0 Randy, H. (1998). Group Communication and Decision-Making Performance A Continued Test of the Functional Perspective, Retrieved on July 10, 2009, from http://www.afirstlook.com/main.cfm/theory_resources/Functional_Perspective_on_Group_Decision_Making

KPMG Three Little Pigs Inc. Solution :: Business, Finance, case study, solution

KPMG Three Little Pigs Inc. Solution Several factors including increased supply have caused declining prices for live hogs on the spot market. Also as shown below, futures prices will remain below the carrying cost for live hogs until nearly the end of the fiscal year. However, processed pork products such as bacon, loins, and ham remain above the current cost of production. Three Little Pigs Inc. is capable of processing hogs into these products internally at some locations. Unfortunately, not all hogs can be transported and processed at the main processing plants and must be sold as live hogs to third parties at spot market prices. There are four potential alternatives for dealing with the possible need to impair the value of Three Little Pigs Inc.'s inventories. Alternative 1: Continue to carry all inventories at cost basis. ARB28, Par.14c ?Such temporary market declines need not be recognized at the interim date since no loss is expected.? EITF, 86-13 Discussion option 28 requires inventory be written to lower of cost or market unless (1) substantial evidence exists that market prices will recover before the inventory is sold?Write down is generally required unless the decline is due to seasonal pricing fluctuation.? ARB43, Ch.4, Par.9 ?Where evidence indicates that cost will be recovered with an approximately normal profit upon sale in the ordinary course of business, no loss should be recognized...? If it can be determined that the depressed prices for lean hogs are only temporary, inventories could and should be kept at cost basis. In this case, adjusting prices to match current market prices would not be necessary. Future prices indicate a recovery before the end of the fiscal year. Futures prices will surpass cost in February and remain above cost for the remainder of the fiscal year. The future prices support claims that the price fluctuations are only temporary in nature, and do not reflect a permanent downward shift in hog prices. Since inventories once impaired cannot be marked up to reflect changes in market conditions, this strategy could be beneficial to the company later on. In this case inventory would not be shown on the books at an unfairly low value. Alternative 2: Mark down all live hog inventories AICPA Audit Procedures for Agricultural Producers Pt.1 Ch5.02 ?Growing crops and developing animals to be held for sale should be valued at the lower of cost or market.? ARB43, Ch.4 Par.8 ?A departure from the cost basis of pricing the inventory is required when the utility of the goods is no longer as great as its cost.

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee :: To Kill a Mockingbird Essays

to kill a mockingbird To Kill A Mockingbird To Kill A Mockingbird is a great book written by Harper Lee. This book is about Tom Robinson trying to help a white girl named Mayella. All that Tom was trying to do was help that little white girl out, but he was alone with her. Bob Ewell Mayella's father said that Tom raped his daughter Mayella. He was just walking by and got asked to help a girl out so he did because he felt sorry for her. Those were three things leading to Tom Robinson's conviction. The first cause was the prejudice ness of the south in the 1930's. One example of this is the churches were segregated. "Calpernia motioned Jem and ma to the end of the row and placed herself between us."(120) Though the conjugation was kind to the children they were surprised of the children. Alexandria wanted Atticus to be fired for being Tom's attorney since Tom is black. The town was outraged that Atticus would do suck a thing. Atticus was helping Tom Robinson so now everyone is mad at Atticus. "Do you defend niggers Atticus?"(74) Everyone wants Atticus to be fired for helping Tom. Atticus is just trying to help Tom now everyone is against him. A group of town members formed a mob and went to the jail to lynch Tom. The mob that the town formed went to the jail and started things. "The men jumped a little and scattered: because they were people everyday.... "(146) The towns mob went to the jail for Tom because of what has been going on. The towns mob was angry that they went to the jail. Bob Ewell and Mayella accused Tom of the crime. Bob was accountable for seeing Tom raping Mayella. Judge Taylor asked Bob. "Mr. Ewell did you see the defendant having sexual intercourse with your daughter?"(174) Bob said that he saw his daughter getting raped by Tom Robinson. His own daughter Mayella also accused Bob of being a drunk. Mayella's testimony says that Tom raped her also gave the jury another white witness against Tom Robinson. Mayella told the judge that her father was a decent, "Except for when he was drunk."(183) Mayella said that Tom raped her so they believed her because she was a white young girl testifying against a black man. Another reason that they believed her is because that it's Mayella's, and Bobs Ewell's word that Tom raped her. No doctor had ever examined Mayella to see if she actually got raped at all. "Did you call a doctor sheriff!" "Did anyone call a doctor?

Management Economics Essay

Introduction. The business cycle or economic cycle refers to the ups and downs seen somewhat simultaneously in most parts of an economy. The cycle involves shifts over time between periods of relatively rapid growth of output (recovery and prosperity), alternating with periods of relative stagnation or decline (contraction or recession). These fluctuations are often measured using the real gross domestic product. To call those alternances â€Å"cycles† is rather misleading, as they don’t tend to repeat at fairly regular time intervals. Most observers find that their lengths (from peak to peak, or from trough to trough) vary, so that cycles are not mechanical in their regularity. Since no two cycles are alike in their details, some economists dispute the existence of cycles and use the word â€Å"fluctuations† instead. Others see enough similarities between cycles that the cycle is a valid basis of studying the state of the economy. A key question is whether or not there are similar mechanisms that generate recessions and/or booms that exist in capitalist economies so that the dynamics that appear as a cycle will be seen again and again. Just as there is no regularity in the timing of business cycles, there is no reason why cycles have to occur at all. The prevailing view among economists is that there is a level of economic activity, often referred to as full employment, at which the economy theoretically could stay forever. Full employment refers to a level of production at which all the inputs to the production process are being used, but not so intensively that they wear out, break down, or insist on higher wages and more vacations. If nothing disturbs the economy, the full-employment level of output, which naturally tends to grow as the population increases and new technologies are discovered, can be maintained forever. There is no reason why a time of full employment has to give way to either a full-fledged boom or a recession. Text. Business Cycle, term used in economics to designate changes in the economy.  Ever since the Industrial Revolution, the level of business activity in industrialized capitalist countries has veered from high to low, taking the economy with it. Characteristics of business cycle are: -A trade cycle is wave like movement. -Cyclical fluctuations are recurrent in nature. -Expansion and contraction in a trade cycle are cumulative in effect. -Trade cycles are all pervading in their impact. -It is characterized by the presence of crisis i.e. downward movement is more sudden and violent than the change from downward to 0upward. -Cycles differ in timing and amplitude they have a common pattern of phases, which are sequential in nature. Phases Of Business Cycles: The ups and downs in the economy are reflected by the fluctuations in aggregate economic activities such as production, investment, employment, prices, wages, bank credits etc. The various phases of the trade cycles are: Prosperity: Expansion And Peak. This phase begins with the rise in the national output, consumer and capital expenditure, level of employment and inventories. Debtors find it more convenient to pay off their debts. Bank rate increases so credit facilities, idle funds for investment in production since stock prices increases due to increase in profitability and dividend. Purchasing power continues to flow in and out of all kinds of economic activities. Expansion continues with the multiplier process. In earlier/ later stages additional workers can be obtained by giving higher wage than prevailing in the market. Input prices increases rapidly which leads to increase in cost of production. As a result price increases and cost of living increases which lower the consumption rate. The demand for new houses, cement, iron, labor tends to halt and same is for furniture, automobiles etc. This makes reaching the peak. To summarize we can say that: -It is a turning point in the business cycle – the end of expansion -Economy at or close to full employment -Capital and Labor Utilization at a high -Prices and cost rise at a moderate rates -Firms profit at high -Interest rates rise -Consumers and firms expectations favorable Turning Point And Recession. After reaching the peak, demand starts declining. Producer unaware of this fact continues to increase production and investment. But after sometime they realize that their inventories are pilling up and they have indulged in over-investment. Consequently further investment plans will be given up-order for new machinery, raw materials. Demand for labor ceases. Temporary and casual workers are removed. Producers of capital goods and raw materials cancel their order. This is the turning point and beginning of recession. Further the income of wage and interest earners also decreases. This causes demand recession. Producer lower down the prices to get rid of inventories  but consumer expects further decreases in price and hence postpones their purchase. Investments starts declining leading to decrease in income and consumption, bank credit shrink and prices decrease. At this stage the process of recession is complete and the economy enters the phase of depression. To summarize this: -Consumer spending falls -Investment spending falls -Inventories accumulate -Firms profit’s decline -Business Failure increase Depression And Trough. This is the phase of relativity low economic activity. It indicates fall in production, increased unemployment and a rapid fall in the general price index. Workers lose their job, debtors find it difficult to pay off their debts, and investment in stock becomes less profitable. At the depth of depression, all economic activities touch the bottom and phase of trough is reached. Weaker firms are eliminated from the industry. At this point, the process of depression is complete. Due to unemployment, labor starts working at lower wages. Consumer expects no further decline in price and start spending. Hence demand picks up. Stock prices fall during recession; the prices of raw material fall faster than the prices of the finished products. Therefore profitability tends to increase after the trough. Producers’ start replacing worth-out capital, investment picks up and employment gradually increases. Following this demand increases, bank credit becomes easily available at a lower rate. Due to increase in income and consumption, the multiplier effect increases the economic activities. The phase of depression comes to an end over time  depending on the speed of recovery. To summarize this: -The turning point in the cycle – the end of contraction -Characterized by high unemployment and low consumer demand relative to industry capacity -Greatest period of excess capacity over the cycle -Business profits are low or negative -Some prices are falling other unchanged -Consumers and firms expectations about future are bleak Recovery. It starts when prices further stop falling. Producers see no risk in undertaking production. Firms use idle capacity to increase production. This generates employment and income, which creates additional demand for consumer goods and services. Businessman when realize increase in profitability. Hence they speed up production machinery. Businessman starts increasing their inventories, consumer start buying more and more of durable goods and variety items. With this process catching up, the economy enters the phase of expansion and prosperity. The cycle is thus complete. To summarize this: -Employment, production, prices and wages begin to rise at roughly the same time -Expectations of consumers and firms optimistic or favorable -Investment spending increases -Consumer demand rises Causes of Cycles. Economists did not try to determine the causes of business cycles until the increasing severity of economic depressions became a major concern in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Two external factors that have been suggested as possible causes are sunspots and psychological trends. The sunspot theory of the British economist William Jevons was once widely accepted. According to Jevons, sunspots affect meteorological conditions. That is, during periods of sunspots, weather conditions are often more severe. Jevons felt that sunspots affected the quantity and quality of harvested crops; thus, they affected the economy. A psychological theory of business cycles, formulated by the British economist Arthur Pigou, states that the optimism or pessimism of business leaders may influence an economic trend. Some politicians have clearly subscribed to this theory. During the early years of the Great Depression, for instance, President Herbert Hoover tried to appear publicly optimistic about the inherent vigor of the American economy, thus hoping to stimulate an upsurge. Several economic theories of the causes of business cycles have been developed. According to the under consumption theory, identified particularly with the British economist John Hobson, inequality of income causes economic declines. The market becomes glutted with goods because the poor cannot afford to buy, and the rich cannot consume all they can afford. Consequently, the rich accumulate savings that are not reinvested in production, because of insufficient demand for goods. This savings accumulation disrupts economic equilibrium and begins a cycle of production cutbacks. The Austrian-American economist Joseph Schumpeter, a proponent of the innovation theory, related upswings of the business cycle to new inventions, which stimulate investment in capital-goods industries. Because new inventions are developed unevenly, business conditions must alternately be  expansive and recessive. The Austrian-born economists Friedrich von Hayek and Ludwig von Mises subscribed to the overinvestment theory. They suggested that instability is the logical consequence of expanding production to the point where less efficient resources are drawn upon. Production costs then rise, and, if these costs cannot be passed on to the consumer, the producer cuts back production and lays off workers. A monetary theory of business cycles stresses the importance of the money supply in the economic system. Since many businesses must borrow money to operate or expand production, the availability and cost of money influence their decisions. Sir Ralph George Hawtrey suggested that changes in interest rates determine whether executives decrease or increase their capital investments, thus affecting the cycle. Regulating the Cycle Since the Great Depression, devices have been built into most economies to help prevent severe business declines. For instance, unemployment insurance provides most workers with some income when they are laid off. Social security and pensions paid by many organizations furnish some income to the increasing number of retired people. Although not as powerful as they once were, trade unions remain an obstacle against the cumulative wage drop that aggravated previous depressions. Schemes to support crop prices (such as the European Common Agricultural Policy) shield farmers from disastrous loss of income. The government can also attempt direct intervention to counter a recession. There are three major techniques available: monetary policy, fiscal policy, and incomes policy. Economists differ sharply in their choice of technique Some economists prefer monetary policy, including the American Milton Friedman and other advocates of monetarism, and is followed by most conservative governments. Monetary policy involves controlling, via the  central bank, the money supply and interest rates. These determine the availability and costs of loans to businesses. Tightening the money supply theoretically helps to counteract inflation; loosening the supply helps recovery from a recession. When inflation and recession occur simultaneously–a phenomenon often called stagflation–it is difficult to know which monetary policy to apply. Considered more effective by American economist John Kenneth Galbraith are fiscal measures, such as increased taxation of the wealthy, and an incomes policy, which seeks to hold wages and prices down to a level that reflects productivity growth. This latter policy has not had much success in the post-World War II period. Conclusion. Thus we can say that the central idea of business-cycle literature, that the economy has regular and periodic waves–a cycle–lasting for several years, has few adherents today. Perhaps such cycles never existed, or perhaps they once did but no longer do because the government now plays an active role in the economy. However, the business-cycle approach remains useful because it is an easy way to introduce a number of macroeconomic topics, including the adjustment process that remains central in macroeconomics.

Teacher Interview Report

Actually, this is my second time to do teacher interview. Last time, I went to Shi Pai Junior High School to interview a teacher and asked something about the class management. From the interview, I’ve learned a lot from the teacher and her belief of teaching Chinese. Though to certain degree, this time the report is quite similar to the last report that I’ve done. However, this time, by the demand of teacher Alice and the class objective, my target interviewee must be an â€Å"English† teacher. At first, I was very nervous about how to find an English teacher in junior or senior high school because I’ve got in touch with all my English teachers for several years. it may be very embarrassing to go back and the teacher doesn’t recognize that I used to be her student) Fortunately, one of my best friends in my night school class, knowing my worriment, introduced me an English teacher in Shilin High School of Commerce whom she loves and admires very much. Here, I want to say thanks to my dear friend. Without her, I really cannot finish writing this assignment. Below, there are some basic info of the teacher and the questions that I’ve prepared for the teacher interview,